BIOS 256 Week 8 Discussion Looking Ahead

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Discussion: Looking Ahead

Hello Professor and Class,

Throughout this eight-week course, we have explored a variety of fascinating concepts related to microbes and microorganisms. One of the most intriguing topics was introduced in Week 4, which focused on controlling microbial growth. We learned that there are three primary methods for controlling microbial growth: physical agents (such as temperature and radiation), chemical agents (including chlorine and alcohol), and mechanical removal (like filtration).

I found it particularly interesting to delve into the terminology associated with controlling microorganisms, especially the distinctions between degermination and decontamination. According to our textbook, decontamination, also known as sanitization, is defined as “the mechanical removal of most microbes.” In contrast, degermination, or antisepsis, involves “the chemical application to body surfaces to destroy or inhibit vegetative pathogens.” Additionally, we learned about two other important terms: sterilization, which refers to the “complete removal or destruction of all viable microorganisms,” and disinfection, which is described as “the use of physical processes or chemical agents to destroy vegetative pathogens but not bacterial endospores” (Cowan & Smith, 2017, p. 287).

BIOS 256 Week 8 Discussion Looking Ahead

Furthermore, it was enlightening to study the various pathogens and their effects on our body systems. Understanding these concepts will be invaluable in our future studies of pathophysiology, where we will examine the processes that impact our health conditions. This knowledge will also be beneficial in healthcare settings, as we will encounter patients exhibiting symptoms of various infections and diseases. With this background, we will be better equipped to identify diseases, determine the pathogens responsible, and provide appropriate treatments.

References

Cowan, M. K., & Smith, H. (2017). Microbiology: A System Approach (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

BIOS 256 Week 7 Genetics and Inheritance

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Concepts of Gene Expression and Inheritance

In the previous section, we explored the DNA within gametes, which are organized into 23 haploid chromosomes, and examined how they contribute to the genetic diversity of offspring. This section seeks to answer several questions, such as why children resemble their parents and how they inherit familial diseases. A gene is defined as a short segment of DNA located on a chromosome, with many genes present along its length. Each chromosome is a long strand of DNA that can contain hundreds to thousands of genes. Genes provide instructions for the cell to synthesize proteins based on the specific sequences in DNA. Chromatin encompasses all the DNA in the nucleus that is not coiled into chromosomes.

Gametes, unlike normal body cells, contain only 23 single chromosomes without homologous pairs. Normal body cells have 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes, with one pair being sex chromosomes and the remaining 22 being autosomes. The genetic vocabulary presented through karyotypes illustrates that chromosomes vary in size and may consist of a few hundred to several thousand genes. Homologous chromosomes possess the same genes at identical positions; however, the gene on the maternally derived chromosome may differ in form from the gene on the paternal chromosome. These variations of the same gene are referred to as alleles. Typically, one allele is dominant (indicated by a capital letter), while the other is recessive (indicated by a lowercase letter). Since individuals have two chromosomes in each homologous pair, they possess two alleles for each gene. If both alleles are dominant (AA), the individual is termed homozygous dominant; if both are recessive (aa), the individual is homozygous recessive; and if the alleles are one of each (Aa), the individual is heterozygous. The collection of alleles that an individual carries for a specific gene is known as the genotype, whereas the observable physical trait is referred to as the phenotype.

Types of Inheritance

A dominant allele will manifest in the phenotype if at least one copy is present, effectively masking the presence of a recessive allele, which requires two copies to be expressed. For example, the cleft chin gene exhibits a dominant-recessive inheritance pattern where the cleft chin trait (A) dominates over the uncleft chin trait (a). Consequently, individuals with a genotype of Aa or AA express the cleft chin phenotype, while those with the homozygous recessive genotype (aa) do not.

In some instances, there exist more than two allele options for a single gene. The human blood typing system is a notable example, where three alleles—IA, IB, and i—determine blood type. In this system, IA and IB are both dominant and co-expressed, while i is recessive. In cases of incomplete dominance, the phenotype is an intermediate of the two alleles, such as with sickle cell anemia. Individuals who are homozygous for the sickle cell allele experience the full condition, while heterozygotes exhibit a milder form.

Mono and Polygenic Inheritance

Traits such as cleft chin, widow’s peak, and Huntington’s disease are examples of traits governed by a single gene, termed monogenic inheritance. In contrast, most human traits result from the interaction of multiple genes across various chromosomes, known as polygenic inheritance. Environmental factors also play a role in how these traits are expressed. Examples of polygenic traits include eye color, height, skin color, and susceptibility to diseases like diabetes and cancer.

Height exemplifies a polygenic trait controlled by multiple genes, with environmental influences, particularly nutrition, also playing a significant role in its expression.

Epigenetics

While the inheritance of genetic factors from parents to offspring has been understood for over a century, the study of nongenetic factors that influence inheritance, termed epigenetics, is relatively new. Epigenetics investigates the mechanisms governing gene expression—how genes are activated or silenced in offspring. Although the human genome contains approximately 30,000 genes, only a few hundred are active at any given time, with the rest being turned off through processes such as DNA methylation, which involves adding methyl groups (CH3) to the DNA. Lifestyle choices and environmental conditions can lead to incorrect methylation in gametes, affecting gene expression that may be passed to offspring.

Epigenetics represents a significant field of study that explores how genes are expressed without altering the DNA sequence directly. It involves various mechanisms that regulate gene expression, ultimately affecting the proteins produced by cells.

Sex-linked Inheritance

The X and Y sex chromosomes not only determine an individual’s sex but also carry essential genes beyond reproduction. The X chromosome contains hundreds of non-reproductive genes necessary for survival, while the Y chromosome has fewer genes primarily associated with male reproduction. Females possess two X chromosomes, providing two alleles for each X-linked gene, whereas males have only one X and therefore one allele, rendering them hemizygous for these genes. Mutations in X-linked genes can lead to various recessive disorders, such as color blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy. Females require two recessive alleles to express these conditions, while males only need one, making them disproportionately affected by sex-linked recessive disorders.

Fathers pass their X chromosome to daughters and Y chromosome to sons, while mothers provide an X chromosome to each child. If a mother is a carrier for color blindness (genotype XC Xc), she does not exhibit the condition due to the presence of a normal dominant allele but can pass the recessive allele (Xc) to her sons, leading to a 50% chance of color blindness. Sons receive a Y chromosome from their father, which does not carry the color blindness allele, while daughters inherit an X chromosome from both parents.

Genetic Testing

Prenatal Testing:

• Ultrasonography: This is the most commonly used and safest type of prenatal testing, typically performed around eight weeks of gestation to confirm pregnancy and assess fetal anatomy for abnormalities.
• Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS): An invasive procedure performed as early as eight weeks, where a piece of fetal tissue is extracted to test for genetic abnormalities.
• Amniocentesis: Another invasive test that involves inserting a needle into the amniotic sac to obtain fluid for genetic testing, though it carries slightly less risk than CVS.
• Maternal Blood Sample: This non-invasive procedure tests for fetal DNA in the mother’s blood around weeks 14-15 of pregnancy, providing early insights into potential genetic defects.

BIOS 256 Week 7 Genetics and Inheritance

Postnatal Genetic Testing: Postnatal genetic testing may be performed if a child fails to meet standard developmental milestones. Various genetic tests are available to check for missing or duplicated chromosome segments, translocations, or specific gene mutations. Multiple tests may be necessary to reach a diagnosis, and genetic counselors can assist in selecting appropriate tests and interpreting results.

Karyotype: A karyotype analysis, which can be conducted pre- or postnatally, identifies chromosomal abnormalities, although more sensitive molecular genetic testing methods are now available.

Safest Tests for the Fetus: The safest testing options include:

• Ultrasonography
• Maternal blood test for fetal DNA/proteins

CVS and amniocentesis carry a small risk of miscarriage (<2%) due to their invasive nature.

BIOS 256 Week 7 Genetics and Inheritance

In summary, the genotype comprises two of the three possible alleles, with IA and IB expressed equally in the phenotype, classified as codominant. The recessive allele, i, leads to a Type O phenotype when two copies are inherited. X-linked disorders predominantly involve genes located on the X chromosome, as the Y chromosome carries few essential genes.

If diabetes mellitus is prevalent in a family, genetic testing may reveal multiple genes that contribute to the condition, indicating a polygenic inheritance pattern influenced by environmental factors. A carrier genotype example is XHXh, which denotes a female carrier (heterozygous), who does not express the recessive condition due to the presence of a dominant allele. Males (XY) cannot be carriers for X-linked conditions, as they only possess one allele.

In the case of a colorblind man, he cannot blame his father for the defective gene since he inherited his Y chromosome from him, which does not carry the gene for color blindness. His mother, being a carrier, contributed the affected X chromosome. Heterozygous individuals for the sickle cell trait exhibit an incomplete dominance inheritance pattern, where both alleles are expressed, resulting in a phenotype that lies between normal red blood cells and those affected by sickle cell anemia. The pair of homologous chromosomes displayed shows that they share the same genes at identical locations, confirming their homologous nature.

BIOS 256 Week 6 Case Study: Reproductive System Required Resources

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study: Reproductive System

Required Resources

Read/review the following resources for this activity:

• Textbook
• Weekly Concepts
• Minimum of 1 scholarly source

Scenario/Summary

History:

A 26-year-old woman has not had menses for the past 3 months. She is not using contraception.

Physical:

Her BMI is 28, which indicates she is overweight. She has moderate acne on her face and an increased amount of dark hair above her lips and on her chest.

Labs:

A pregnancy test was negative. Prolactin, FSH, and thyroid tests are normal, while LH and testosterone are mildly elevated.

Assessment:

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) is suspected, causing hirsutism (increased hair growth over the body), anovulation (lack of ovulation), and infrequent menses.

Deliverables

Answer the following questions based on the scenario and article above. Save your responses in a Microsoft Word document, and provide a scholarly resource in APA format to support your answers.

1. Describe 3 Effects of Estrogen on the Body

Estrogen has several key roles in the body. In the reproductive tract, estrogen helps regulate the menstrual cycle by stimulating the growth of the egg follicle in the ovaries and enhancing the mucous membrane lining of the uterus. It also regulates the flow and consistency of uterine mucus secretions. Outside the reproductive system, estrogen plays a role in the development of breast tissue, especially during puberty, pregnancy, and breastfeeding, and helps stop milk production after weaning. Additionally, estrogen affects skin, hair, bones, the urinary tract, and brain function.

2. Describe 3 Effects of Testosterone on the Body

Testosterone is primarily known for sustaining the male reproductive system, influencing sperm production and libido. In terms of muscular development, testosterone promotes protein synthesis and prevents muscle degradation, which leads to muscular hypertrophy. Testosterone also plays a role in erythropoiesis by enhancing iron use in red blood cell production. Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, and when testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are balanced, sperm production is optimized.

3. Predict the Consequences of Not Having Menses Due to Anovulation, Including the Effect on the Endometrial Lining

Anovulation can lead to subfertility, as ovulation is necessary for conception. Without regular ovulation, the endometrial lining may not shed properly, leading to an abnormal buildup of estrogen, which thickens the lining. This can result in abnormal uterine bleeding and potentially increases the risk of endometrial hyperplasia, which can develop into cancer if untreated.

4. Why Was a Prolactin Level Checked? Name 2 Symptoms a Patient with a High Prolactin Level May Have

Prolactin levels are often checked to help diagnose prolactinoma, a type of pituitary gland tumor, or to investigate the cause of menstrual irregularities and infertility. Elevated prolactin can lead to symptoms such as irregular or absent menstrual periods and milky discharge from the breasts (galactorrhea). Other possible symptoms include loss of interest in sex and infertility.

5. Research and List 2 Other Problems a Person with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS) May Have

Women with PCOS may experience a variety of symptoms beyond irregular menstrual cycles. These can include excess male hormone (androgen) levels, which result in conditions like hirsutism (excessive hair growth on the face, chin, and body), acne, and male-pattern baldness. Another common issue is insulin resistance, which can lead to weight gain and difficulty losing weight, and an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Table of Effects

References

England, C. N. (2021). Anovulation. Women & Infants. Retrieved August 10, 2021, from https://fertility.womenandinfants.org/services/women/anovulation

Estrogen’s Effects on the Female Body. (2021). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Retrieved August 10, 2021, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/estrogens-effects-on-the-female-body

Prolactinoma. (2021, August 10). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/endocrine-diseases/prolactinoma

BIOS 256 Week 6 Case Study: Reproductive System Required Resources

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. (2019, April 1). Polycystic ovary syndrome. Office of Women’s Health. https://www.womenshealth.gov/a-z-topics/polycystic-ovary-syndrome

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BIOS 256 Week 5 Case Study Fluid, Electrolyte, Acid/Base

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study Questions

1. Acid/Base Imbalance from Vomiting:
   Repeated vomiting results in metabolic alkalosis due to the loss of stomach acid (HCl) (Saladin, 2020).

2. Effect on Blood Chloride Level from Vomiting:
   Repeated vomiting would cause hypochloremia, a condition characterized by decreased chloride levels in the blood (Saladin, 2020).

3. Definition of “Normal Saline”:
   Normal saline is a 0.9% NaCl solution that mimics the salt concentration of body fluids. It is an isotonic solution used to raise blood volume (Tonog, 2021).

4. Signs of Dehydration (3 examples):
   a. Dry mouth
   b. Lethargy
   c. Extreme thirst (Shaheen et al., 2018)

5. Respiratory Compensation for Acid-Base Imbalance:
   The pulmonary system compensates for acid-base imbalance by regulating breathing rate and depth, which adjusts CO2 levels and consequently pH (Hopkins et al., 2021).

References

Hopkins E, Sanvictores T, Sharma S. (2021). Physiology, Acid Base Balance. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507807/

Saladin, K. S. (2020). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Retrieved from https://ambassadored.vitalsource.com/books/9781260791563

Shaheen, N. A., Alqahtani, A. A., Assiri, H., Alkhodair, R., & Hussein, M. A. (2018). Public knowledge of dehydration and fluid intake practices. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1346. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6252-5

BIOS 256 Week 5 Case Study Fluid, Electrolyte, Acid/Base

Tonog P, Lakhkar AD. (2021). Normal Saline. StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545210/

BIOS 256 Week 4 Lab Instructions Urinary System

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Lab Instructions for the Urinary System

The following instructions outline the steps for a laboratory activity focused on the urinary system. This lab includes a dissection of the kidney and answering associated critical thinking questions. Please refer to your syllabus under the section “Due Dates for Assignments & Exams” to ensure all deliverables are submitted on time.

Part A – Activity Overview

Deliverable Points: 30 points
Instructions: Complete all lab deliverables for Part A
Materials Needed:

• Kidney specimen
• Dissecting tools

Kidney Dissection Activity

The kidney dissection activity is divided into several steps, as described below:

1. Use your fingers or a blunt probe to remove any peripheral fat from the kidney specimen.
2. Locate the ureter, which originates at the renal hilum, the indentation seen on the medial side of the kidney.
3. Place the kidney flat on the dissecting tray. Begin a coronal incision at the renal hilum, cutting through the entire kidney length. Always cut away from your body for safety reasons.
4. Continue cutting through the kidney’s depth, separating it into two equal halves.
5. Lay both halves on your dissecting tray for examination.
6. Your specimen should resemble the image provided in the lab manual.
7. Identify all structures listed in Table 1 based on their corresponding letters in the image.
8. Answer the critical thinking questions at the end of the activity.

Table 1: Identification (10 Points)

Critical Thinking Questions

• Trace the path of urine from the renal papilla to the ureter (5 points):
  Urine flows from the renal papilla to the minor calyx, then to the major calyx, followed by the renal pelvis, and finally to the ureter.

• Trace the flow of blood throughout the kidney, starting with the renal artery and ending with the renal vein (5 points):
  Blood flows through the renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, the glomerulus, efferent arterioles, peritubular capillaries, interlobular veins, arcuate veins, interlobar veins, and finally the renal vein.

BIOS 256 Week 3 Case Study Metabolism

• Trace the path of filtrate, starting with the glomerulus and ending at the collecting duct (5 points):
  Filtrate moves from the glomerulus to the proximal convoluted tubule, the nephron loop, the distal convoluted tubule, and finally the collecting duct.

• List and describe five functions of the urinary system/kidneys (5 points):
  a. Fluid regulation: Controls water retention and thirst.
  b. Blood pressure regulation: Regulates blood pressure by controlling fluid levels.
  c. Waste removal: Filters blood to remove waste products and medications, expelled as urine.
  d. Electrolyte balance: Maintains the balance of salts and electrolytes, aiding in blood volume control.
  e. pH balance: Maintains the homeostatic balance of pH and acids in the blood.

BIOS 256 Week 3 Case Study Metabolism

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study 2: BT

History

BT is a 36-year-old female who has experienced dysuria (painful urination) and increased urinary frequency for the past two days. She has no fever or additional symptoms and admits to reduced water intake during this time.

Physical Examination

The abdomen is soft, without any tenderness or masses.

Laboratory Results

A urinalysis, conducted with a dipstick, revealed the presence of leukocytes and nitrites, indicating a urinary tract infection (UTI). Additionally, ketones were detected in her urine (ketonuria), which is unexpected. Further history is needed to determine the cause of her excess ketone production.

Deliverables

1. Two potential causes of ketonuria

• Diabetes
• Glycogen storage disease

2. Nutrient involved in ketone formation
Ketones are produced when glucose levels in the body are insufficient.

3. Describe lipolysis and ketone formation
Lipolysis is the process by which triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids. When glucose is in short supply, ketones are produced in the liver from the breakdown of fats, serving as an alternative energy source for the body.

4. Is lipolysis anabolic or catabolic?
Lipolysis is a catabolic process, as it involves the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller components.

5. Predict the effect of excess ketones on blood pH
Excess ketones can lead to a drop in blood pH, resulting in metabolic acidosis, a condition known as ketoacidosis.

References

Ketones. (2021). Ketones. https://dtc.ucsf.edu/types-of-diabetes/type2/understanding-type-2-diabetes/how-the-body-processes-sugar/ketones/#:%7E:text=Ketones%20and%20ketoacids%20are%20alternative,supply%20the%20body’s%20fuel%20needs

BIOS 256 Week 3 Case Study Metabolism

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BIOS-256 Week 2 Case Study Lower GI

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

History

Mr. D is a 60-year-old male presenting with fever, abdominal pain, decreased appetite, and nausea over the past 24 hours. There have been no changes in his diet, no recent travel, and no history of eating out. Five years ago, he underwent a screening colonoscopy, which revealed diverticula in his colon, though he had never experienced any symptoms related to this condition.

Physical Examination

Mr. D appears fatigued and in pain. Notably, there is abdominal tenderness on palpation.

Laboratory Results/Tests

White blood cell count is elevated on the complete blood count (CBC).

Amylase, lipase, and liver function tests are within normal limits.

A CT scan of the abdomen indicates diverticulitis.

Assessment and Plan

Mr. D has been diagnosed with diverticulitis, a condition in which diverticula—thin-walled outpouchings in the colon—become inflamed. Common risk factors include a low-fiber diet and constipation. Treatment generally involves avoiding solid foods, maintaining hydration, and administering antibiotics.

Deliverables

1. Describe the path of chyme and feces from the duodenum to the anus, identifying portions of the small and large intestines.

After receiving chyme from the stomach, the small intestine mixes the chyme with secretions from the liver and pancreas in the duodenum. Segmentations help mix the chyme with digestive juices and bring it into contact with the mucosa for absorption. Peristalsis propels the chyme through the small intestine, starting with the jejunum, where finger-like structures called villi assist with nutrient absorption into the bloodstream. By the time the chyme reaches the ileum, most digestion, including the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, has occurred. The ileum releases hormones signaling fullness, and any undigested material passes into the large intestine via the caecum, a small storage pouch.

In the colon, slower peristalsis moves undigested remains through the large intestine, where bacteria ferment some of the material, producing short-chain fatty acids and important nutrients like vitamin K. In the sigmoid colon, liquid from the small intestine is transformed into semi-solid stool. The stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until mass movements propel it into the rectum. Once in the rectum, the stool triggers a stretch response, signaling the need for defecation. The rectum releases stool through the anus, which is controlled by surrounding muscles.

2. Two important functions of the small intestine

The small intestine absorbs approximately 90% of the nutrients and water from digested food.

Lacteals, lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine, absorb fat-laden chylomicrons.

3. Two important functions of the large intestine

Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass movements propel the contents from the colon to the rectum.

The large intestine absorbs vitamins produced by resident bacteria, such as vitamin K.

4. Predict the location of pain in diverticulitis

Diverticulitis most frequently affects the sigmoid colon, which is located in the left lower quadrant (LLQ) of the abdomen. Therefore, pain is typically felt in the LLQ.

5. Functions of the peritoneum

The peritoneum protects and secures the abdominal organs in place.

BIOS-256 Week 2 Case Study Lower GI

It serves as a conduit for the passage of blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics within the abdominal cavity.

BIOS-256 Week 1 Lab Worksheet

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-256 Anatomy & Physiology IV with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Week 1 Lab Worksheet

Lab Manual Exercise 34: Digestive System Structure and Function

Work through Lab Activities 1-9 (pages 561-582) as you prepare for Reviewing Your Knowledge and Using Your Knowledge. Then download this form, save it to your desktop, complete the answers by each number, save your completed form, label it lastname_iLab1 folder, and submit this to the Week 1 Lab Dropbox.

Part 1: Reviewing Your Knowledge

A. Layers of the Gastrointestinal Tract

1. muscularis
2. mucosa
3. lamina propria
4. serosa

B. Gastrointestinal Tract Organs

1. esophagus
2. alimentary canal
3. pharynx
4. small intestine
5. duodenum
6. stomach
7. anus
8. stomach
9. large intestine
10. mouth

C. Digestive Organ Structures

1. villi
2. rugae
3. plica circularis
4. pyloric valve
5. parietal peritoneum
6. visceral peritoneum
7. ileocecal sphincter
8. saliva
9. hard palate
10. microvilli
11. soft palate
12. vestibule
13. cardiac
14. colon (large intestine)
15. pylorus
16. haustra

D. Accessory Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum

1. teeth
2. pancreas
3. sublingual glands
4. liver
5. mesentery
6. pancreas
7. falciform ligament
8. tongue
9. greater omentum
10. parotid glands
11. gallbladder
12. lesser omentum

13. submandibular glands

14. Trace bile from its secretion to the gallbladder for storage and concentration, and then to the duodenum, listing the structures in order, using Figure 34.9
    a) Hepatocytes
    b) Bile ducts
    c) Common hepatic duct
    d) Cystic duct
    e) Gallbladder
    f) Common bile duct
    g) Duodenum

15. Trace blood from the hepatic portal vein through the liver to the inferior vena cava, listing the structures in order, using Figure 34.11
    a) Hepatic portal vein
    b) Liver sinusoids
    c) Central vein
    d) Hepatic vein
    e) Inferior vena cava

Using Your Knowledge

A. Digestive System Structure

1. Digestive enzymes
2. Hormonal regulation

B. Identification of Digestive System Structures

1. Oral cavity
2. Esophagus
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Large intestine
6. Accessory organs
7. Sphincters
8. Mucosal layers

Part 2: PowerPhys #14: Effect of Dietary Fiber on Transit Time and Bile

Follow the instructions provided in PowerPhys under Course Home. Complete all the sections, save the file to your desktop under the folder lastname_iLab1, and submit it to the Week 1 Lab Dropbox.

BIOS-256 Week 1 Lab Worksheet