BIOS 255 Week 5 Case Study Hypersensitivity Reactions

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Manuel’s Experience with Hypersensitivity Reaction

Manuel is experiencing a hypersensitivity reaction, an abnormal and intense response of the immune system to an antigen. In this instance, the antigen responsible for triggering the reaction is bee venom. Within minutes of being stung, Manuel developed hives, which is a hallmark symptom of a hypersensitivity reaction. Hypersensitivity reactions are categorized into four types based on the immune system components involved, as well as the timing and nature of the reaction.

Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions

Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate reaction facilitated by IgE antibodies. These antibodies are produced in response to allergens such as pollen, dust mites, insect bites, or specific foods. Once the allergen enters the body, IgE antibodies are triggered, binding to the surface of mast cells and basophils. This binding results in the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators. Symptoms associated with type I hypersensitivity can vary from mild to severe and include hives, nasal congestion, coughing, wheezing, and potentially life-threatening anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis represents the most severe form of type I hypersensitivity, characterized by widespread vasodilation, circulatory shock, and, in extreme cases, sudden death.

Type II hypersensitivity, on the other hand, is a cytotoxic reaction mediated by IgG or IgM antibodies. These antibodies bind to specific antigens on the surface of cells, initiating the complement system and leading to cell destruction or damage. This reaction is often observed in autoimmune diseases, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia, Goodpasture syndrome, and Myasthenia gravis.

Type III hypersensitivity involves immune complex reactions where IgM and IgG antibodies form complexes with antigens, which in turn activate the complement system and result in tissue damage. Conditions like Lupus and Serum sickness are typical outcomes of type III hypersensitivity.

Finally, type IV hypersensitivity is a delayed reaction mediated by T cells. The immune response is slower, as T cells recognize antigens on cell surfaces, triggering cytokine release, which causes inflammation and tissue damage. Tuberculosis and fungal infections are frequently associated with this type of hypersensitivity.

Manuel’s Hypersensitivity Reaction

Considering the symptoms that Manuel exhibited after being stung by a bee, it is highly likely that he is experiencing a type I hypersensitivity reaction. The hives, which appeared within minutes of the sting, are a common manifestation of this type of reaction. Additionally, bee venom’s ability to enter the bloodstream suggests that it is a probable trigger for a type I hypersensitivity response.

Treatment of Hypersensitivity Reactions

The treatment of hypersensitivity reactions depends on the specific type of reaction and its severity. For type I hypersensitivity reactions, the first line of treatment is epinephrine, a vasoconstrictor that reduces mucosal edema and swelling caused by allergic reactions. Epinephrine also plays a crucial role in relieving airway constriction and preventing hypotension and shock. Other treatments for type I reactions include antihistamines and corticosteroids, which help alleviate inflammation and allergic symptoms.

For type II and III hypersensitivity reactions, treatment is typically directed at managing the underlying autoimmune condition or infection causing the reaction. Immunosuppressive drugs may be prescribed to reduce the overall immune response.

In the case of type IV hypersensitivity reactions, the focus is on controlling the underlying infection or inflammation through the use of antibiotics, antifungal medications, or anti-inflammatory drugs.

Conclusion

Hypersensitivity reactions represent an abnormal and exaggerated response of the immune system to antigens. These reactions are classified into four types based on the components of the immune system involved, as well as the timing and nature of the immune response. Proper treatment varies according to the type and severity of the reaction, ranging from epinephrine administration for type I reactions to immunosuppressive therapies for autoimmune-related hypersensitivities.

Table of Hypersensitivity Reactions

References

Cunha, J. P. (2020, November 2). What are the four types of allergic reactions? eMedicineHealth. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://www.emedicinehealth.com/what_are_the_4_types_of_allergic_reactions/article_em.htm

BIOS 255 Week 5 Case Study Hypersensitivity Reactions

HealthEngine Blog. (2005, October 5). Insect stings (Bee Sting, Spider Bites) information: Myvmc. Retrieved February 6, 2022, from https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/insect-stings-bee-sting-spider-bites

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Describe innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work, and how they interact.
  The immune system is divided into two main parts: innate and adaptive immunity. The innate immune system provides a general defense against pathogens and is the body’s first line of defense. It includes barriers like the skin, chemicals in the blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign substances. The adaptive immune system is more specific and can recognize, remember, and attack particular pathogens with greater precision. It works by developing a memory of pathogens, which enables a quicker and more potent response upon future encounters. These two systems interact to create a cohesive defense mechanism, where innate immunity triggers and helps guide the adaptive response.

• Question: Explain the various subclasses of antibodies – how they are similar, how they differ.
  Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by B cells that help the immune system recognize and neutralize pathogens. The five major subclasses of antibodies are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD. They share a common basic structure but differ in their functions and locations. For example, IgG is the most abundant and effective in providing long-term immunity, while IgA is found in mucous membranes and protects against infections in those areas. IgM is the first antibody produced during an infection, IgE is involved in allergic responses, and IgD has a less clear function but is thought to play a role in respiratory defense.

• Question: Define ventilation, external respiration, and internal respiration. Be sure to identify their functions and where they occur.
  Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of the lungs. External respiration is the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the air in the lungs and the blood. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues of the body. Ventilation occurs in the lungs, while external respiration takes place in the alveoli, and internal respiration occurs in the tissues throughout the body.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Explain the neural control of ventilation, including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
  The brain controls ventilation through centers located in the medulla oblongata and the pons. These centers regulate the rate and depth of breathing by sending signals to the respiratory muscles. Sensory signals from chemoreceptors and baroreceptors monitor the levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and pH in the blood, while motor signals stimulate the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to contract, leading to inhalation.

• Question: Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood, emphasizing factors affecting loading/unloading in the lungs vs. tissues.
  Oxygen is transported in the blood primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, while carbon dioxide is mainly transported as bicarbonate ions in the plasma. The loading of oxygen occurs in the lungs where oxygen concentration is high, and unloading happens in tissues where oxygen is used for metabolism. Carbon dioxide is picked up in tissues and transported back to the lungs for exhalation. Factors like pH, temperature, and the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide influence this process.

• Question: List and briefly describe the major functions of the various subclasses of T cells.
  T cells are divided into several subclasses: helper T cells (CD4+), cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), and regulatory T cells. Helper T cells activate other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and regulatory T cells help control the immune response to prevent overreaction.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Explain the similarities and differences between primary and secondary responses of the adaptive immune response.
  The primary response occurs when the immune system first encounters a pathogen. It takes time to develop and is usually weaker. The secondary response occurs upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen and is faster and more powerful due to memory cells generated during the primary response.

• Question: Functions of the Spleen
  The spleen filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and produces immune responses to blood-borne pathogens.

• Question: All muscles used in exhaling and inhaling
  Inhalation involves the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, while exhalation involves the internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles.

• Question: Know the characteristics of the thymus
  The thymus is responsible for the maturation of T cells, which are critical for the adaptive immune response.

• Question: Know the components of the lymphatic system
  The lymphatic system includes lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, the thymus, spleen, and tonsils. These components are essential for immune surveillance and the return of interstitial fluid to the blood.

• Question: Know the conduction system for air
  The air conduction system includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles leading to the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Where gas exchange occurs in the lung and how this occurs
  Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen is absorbed into the blood and carbon dioxide is released from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.

• Question: Function of RBCs, T-cells, B-cells, Cytotoxic T cells, Natural killer cells
  Red blood cells (RBCs) transport oxygen, T cells mediate immune responses, B cells produce antibodies, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and natural killer cells target and kill virus-infected or cancerous cells.

• Question: Return of lymph to venous circulation
  Lymph is collected from tissues and returned to the venous system through lymphatic vessels and ducts.

• Question: Know the process of inhalation and exhalation (the steps involved)
  Inhalation involves the contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals, creating a negative pressure that draws air into the lungs. Exhalation is usually passive but can involve active contraction of the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles to expel air.

• Question: Describe the feedback mechanism involved in erythropoiesis.
  Erythropoiesis is regulated by the hormone erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels. This stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Describe the cardiac cycle (include conduction, contraction, heart sounds, and EKG information).
  The cardiac cycle includes the phases of systole and diastole. Electrical signals generated by the sinoatrial node trigger contraction (systole) of the atria and ventricles, followed by relaxation (diastole). Heart sounds correspond to valve closures, and the EKG records the electrical activity of the heart.

• Question: Describe the factors that increase blood pressure (negative feedback involved in blood pressure regulation).
  Factors that increase blood pressure include increased blood volume, heart rate, and vasoconstriction. Negative feedback mechanisms, such as baroreceptor reflexes, help regulate blood pressure by adjusting heart rate and vessel diameter.

• Question: Describe the responses involved in non-specific immunity.
  Non-specific immunity includes physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and inflammation. These responses do not target specific pathogens but act as a general defense.

• Question: Describe cell-mediated immunity (antigen presentation, antigen recognition, activation, and cellular response). Include both CD8 and CD4 T cells.
  Cell-mediated immunity involves antigen-presenting cells displaying antigens to T cells. CD4 T cells help activate other immune cells, while CD8 T cells directly attack infected cells.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Describe antibody-mediated immunity (antigen presentation, antigen recognition, activation, and cellular response).
  Antibody-mediated immunity involves B cells recognizing antigens and producing antibodies that neutralize pathogens.

• Question: Describe the events, pressures, and muscles involved in inhalation and exhalation.
  Inhalation occurs when the diaphragm contracts, lowering thoracic pressure and allowing air to enter. Exhalation occurs when the diaphragm relaxes, increasing thoracic pressure and expelling air.

• Question: Describe how breathing is regulated through the negative feedback control of PCO2, PO2, and pH.
  Breathing is regulated by chemoreceptors that monitor carbon dioxide (PCO2), oxygen (PO2), and pH levels in the blood. When PCO2 increases, the brain stimulates increased breathing to expel more CO2 and balance pH levels.

• Question: Explain the difference between nonspecific and specific defense and the role of lymphocytes in each immune response.
  Nonspecific defense is a general response to any pathogen, while specific defense targets particular pathogens. Lymphocytes, such as T and B cells, play a critical role in the specific immune response by recognizing and attacking specific pathogens

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Identify the major components of the lymphatic system and explain their functions.
  The major components include lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, the spleen, and the thymus. These structures filter lymph, remove pathogens, and support immune responses.

• Question: List the body’s nonspecific defenses, and explain the function of two of them, also describe the components and mechanisms.
  The body’s nonspecific defenses include barriers like the skin, mucous membranes, phagocytic cells, inflammation, and fever. Skin acts as a physical barrier, while inflammation attracts immune cells to the site of infection.

• Question: Discuss the types of T cells and the role played by each in the immune response, and explain the mechanisms of their activation.
  Helper T cells activate other immune cells, cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells, and regulatory T cells prevent excessive immune reactions. They are activated by antigen presentation from other immune cells.

• Question: Describe the mechanisms of B cell activation and the differentiation of plasma cells and memory B cells.
  B cells are activated when they encounter an antigen, which triggers them to proliferate into plasma cells that produce antibodies and memory B cells that provide long-term immunity.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Describe the structure of an antibody, and discuss the types and functions of antibodies in body fluids and secretions.
  Antibodies have a Y-shaped structure with variable regions that bind antigens. IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD have different functions, such as neutralizing toxins and viruses or facilitating phagocytosis.

• Question: Identify the organs forming the respiratory passageway(s) in descending order until the alveoli are reached. Distinguish between conducting and respiratory zone structures.
  The respiratory passageways include the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. The conducting zone transports air, while the respiratory zone is involved in gas exchange.

• Question: List several physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation and list the various lung volumes and capacities.
  Factors influencing ventilation include airway resistance, lung compliance, and surface tension. Lung volumes include tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, and expiratory reserve, while capacities include vital capacity and total lung capacity.

• Question: Describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.
  Oxygen is carried mainly by hemoglobin in red blood cells, and carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate in the plasma, with some dissolved in blood and bound to proteins.

BIOS 255 Week 8 Final Exam (Essay & Explanatory)

• Question: Compare the causes and consequences of conditions such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, COPD, ‘black lung,’ and lung cancer.
  Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, COPD, and black lung are chronic respiratory conditions characterized by inflammation, obstruction, or destruction of lung tissue. Lung cancer involves abnormal cell growth in the lungs and is often caused by smoking or environmental toxins

BIOS 255 Week 7 Respiratory System-Physiology

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Respiratory System – Physiology

Learning Objectives:

• Explain the physiological adaptations of the cardiorespiratory system of seals to deep diving.
• Identify differences between seal and human physiology related to deep diving.
• Evaluate respiratory and cardiac function.
• Measure oxygen consumption and calculate the total amount of oxygen needed for dives of various durations, comparing this to estimated stores in the lungs, blood, and tissues.

Introduction:

Active cells constantly require oxygen to produce energy and carry out cellular processes. This energy production results in carbon dioxide, a waste product that must be removed from the body, as its buildup is toxic to cells. The respiratory rate, or the number of breaths per minute, and the depth of respiration are controlled by the respiratory center in the brainstem. This center ensures that respiratory effort meets the body’s metabolic demands.

In this lab, we will explore the physiological adaptations of seals, specifically Weddell seals, that allow them to perform long, deep dives, sometimes reaching depths of up to 600 meters and lasting up to 30 minutes. Seals possess specialized adaptations that allow them to store oxygen and manage aerobic and anaerobic energy generation. These unique features enable them to dive for much longer periods than humans. By monitoring three dives and collecting data on oxygen and lactate levels, we will learn about oxygen stores, the aerobic dive limit, and the differences in oxygen storage between seals and humans.

Assignment:

Part 1: Complete the Labster simulation, “Cardiorespiratory Physiology: How Can Seals Dive So Deep for So Long?” Record data throughout the lab. The theory section provides valuable information.
Part 2: Complete the lab report.

Respiratory Physiology Lab Report:

1. Main Difference in Oxygen Stores:
   Unlike humans, who fill their lungs with air before diving, seals exhale to avoid the bends caused by nitrogen bubbles under pressure. Seals experience increasing pressure as they dive deeper, with the pressure doubling every 10 meters.

2. Greatest Proportion of Oxygen Stored in Humans:
   Oxygen is stored in the blood (hemoglobin) and muscle (myoglobin). Seals, with their larger red blood cells and higher concentrations of oxygen-storing hemoglobin, store more oxygen in their blood compared to humans.

3. Factorial Increase in Oxygen Consumption:
   Seals do not exhibit the same factorial increase in oxygen consumption as humans. Instead, they can dive for much longer periods due to their reduced oxygen consumption during diving. Weddell seals can dive 16 times longer than the average human.

4. Oxygen Consumption for 12-Minute vs 30-Minute Dives:
   During a 12-minute dive, the seal used 4.88 mL/min of oxygen, while for a 30-minute dive, the seal used 4.48 mL/min. This shows that the oxygen consumption rate does not increase significantly, even during longer dives.

5. Lactate Accumulation:
   During the 12-minute dive, there was no lactate accumulation. However, in the 30-minute dive, lactate levels increased from 2 mmol/liter at rest to 10 mmol/liter. This suggests that the 30-minute dive exceeded the aerobic dive limit, requiring partial anaerobic metabolism to meet the energy demands.

6. Seal’s Heart Response to Diving:
   During a dive, the seal’s heart rate drops to conserve oxygen and energy, allowing it to sustain longer dives.

7. Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption Patterns:
   In a 30-minute dive, the seal’s heart rate slows, and its oxygen consumption remains stable or decreases slightly. This reflects the seal’s efficient oxygen management and energy conservation during diving.

8. Incorrect Statement About Seal Adaptations:
   The incorrect statement is that seals have larger lungs than humans per body mass. In fact, seals have smaller lungs relative to their body mass compared to humans.

9. How the Respiratory and Circulatory Systems Complement Each Other:
   The seal’s respiratory system allows its lungs to compress under pressure, preventing bends. The circulatory system, with its large blood volume and high oxygen content, works with the respiratory system to store and distribute oxygen efficiently during a dive.

BIOS 255 Week 7 Respiratory System-Physiology

BIOS 255 Week 6 Respiratory System-Anatomy

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Respiratory System – Anatomy

Learning Objectives:

1. Describe the gross anatomical features of the respiratory tract.
2. Trace the flow of air into and out of the lungs.
3. Explain how Boyle’s law relates to the changing intrapleural and alveolar air pressures and volumes during respiration.
4. Define various pulmonary volumes.

Introduction:

The respiratory tract serves as a conduit for air traveling to and from the lungs. When air is inhaled through the nose or mouth, it travels through the pharynx and larynx, then continues into the trachea, bronchial tree, and eventually the lungs. Inhalation relies on reducing the pressure in the lungs below atmospheric pressure to draw air in. This pressure reduction occurs by expanding the volume of the thoracic cavity. As the lungs follow the movement of the chest wall due to their encapsulation within closed spaces, this expansion facilitates inhalation. The lungs are protected by a double membrane, known as the pleural membrane. Pulmonary function can be assessed through spirometry, which measures different pulmonary volumes. Now, let’s explore the fascinating mechanics of the respiratory system!

Assignment:

Part 1

Complete the activities related to the respiratory system in Anatomy.TV, including the upper and lower respiratory tract, pulmonary ventilation, lung volumes, and capacities.
To access Anatomy.TV:

• Go to the Resources tab.
• Select Library > Library Resources – Database A-Z > Anatomy.TV.
• Choose the assigned system and sections.
• Scroll through the materials and complete the activities.

Part 2

Complete the Respiratory Anatomy Lab Report.

Respiratory Anatomy Lab Report

1. Purpose:

The purpose of this lab is to study the process of respiration, explore the respiratory organs and their functions, understand Boyle’s law in relation to thoracic cavity volume and pressure, and identify different types of respiration.

2. Procedure:

This lab involves identifying the structures of the respiratory system and tracing the flow of air into and out of the lungs.

3. Data and Details:

a. Functions of the Respiratory System:

• Oxygen intake from the external environment and delivery to cells, while removing carbon dioxide.
• Pulmonary defense and metabolism.
• Regulation of acid-base balance.
• Handling of bioactive materials.

b. Anatomy of the Larynx:

In the provided image of the larynx, identify and label the thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and epiglottis.

4. Questions:

a. Boyle’s Law:

Boyle’s Law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied, as long as the temperature remains constant. In a closed container, when the amount of gas decreases, the volume also decreases because the container is expandable.

b. Thoracic Cavity Volume and Pressure:

When the diaphragm contracts (flattens), it moves downward into the abdominal cavity, expanding the thoracic cavity. This increase in thoracic volume decreases the pressure inside the lungs, allowing more air to flow into them.

c. Role of Surfactant in the Lungs:

Surfactant lowers surface tension at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli, preventing the alveoli from collapsing and sticking together. It keeps the alveolar surface moist and functional.

d. Pulmonary Volumes:

• Tidal Volume: The amount of air entering and leaving the respiratory tract with each normal breath.
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume: The additional amount of air that can be inhaled beyond normal inspiration, up to total lung capacity.

BIOS 255 Week 6 Respiratory System-Anatomy

5. Discussion:

a. Anatomic Dead Space:

Anatomic dead space refers to the volume of air in the conducting zone of the respiratory system. This zone includes structures such as the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles, where no gas exchange occurs.

b. Difficulties in the Lab:

One difficulty encountered was rotating the skeleton in the lab. It would have been more helpful if the structure was more user-friendly.

6. Reflection:

a. I learned about ventilation, the process of delivering oxygen to the lungs and removing carbon dioxide.

b. I also learned about the carina, a thick cartilaginous ring located where the trachea divides into the two primary bronchi during respiration.

Grading Rubric for Lab Report Activity

BIOS 255 Week 5 Immune System

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Immune System

Learning Objectives:

• Discuss the fundamental need for the immune system.
• Identify physical and chemical barriers against pathogenic invasion.
• Describe mechanisms of immune invasion by pathogens.
• Predict the outcome of scenarios of immune deficiency.
• Summarize the key features of innate and adaptive immune responses.
• Describe antigen-antibody interactions.
• Classify immune cell types by their role in responses.
• Define immunological memory and its importance.

Introduction:

Immunity refers to the body’s ability to defend itself against disease and infection. Immunity can be categorized into two different forms: innate or adaptive. We will explore these two types of immunity in detail. Have you ever wondered what infections look like from the pathogen’s perspective? If our immune systems are so effective, why do we still get sick? The immune system is a complex network of cells and tissues that work together to protect the body from infection.

In this simulation, you will take on the role of a pathogen attempting to establish an infection in a human body. You will encounter the major cells and organs of the immune system as they work to eliminate you. Through this interactive experience, you will gain a better understanding of how immune cells destroy invading pathogens. By examining historical data maps, you will also learn how an individual’s immunological status influences both personal health and the spread of disease in their community. Additionally, you will meet the key cells involved in immune memory and explore the role of immunization in preventing diseases. This simulation will prepare you for a global health investigation challenge.

Assignment:

Part 1

Labster “Introduction to Immunology: Explore the Immune System and Save the World.” As you complete the lab, be sure to have your lab report ready to record data. The theory section of the lab will be a helpful resource.

Part 2

Complete the lab report.

Immune System Lab Report

1. Describe components of the immune system by completing the following chart:

1. What is the primary mode by which a macrophage engulfs pathogens?
   Phagocytosis.

2. What is a major functional difference between B cells and T cells?
   B cells are involved in antibody-mediated immunity, while T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity.

3. Identify two methods of immune evasion by pathogens:
   Pathogens evade the immune system through antigenic variation and latency.

4. Record the data from the samples:

1. Interpret the results of Samples 1, 3, 7, and 8:

1. Discuss the benefit of vaccinations:
   Vaccines are beneficial because they provide a weakened form of the virus, which stimulates an adaptive immune response. This allows the immune system to remember how to fight the virus when it encounters it naturally, resulting in a quicker and more effective immune response that can kill the virus before it causes significant harm.

BIOS 255 Week 5 Immune System

Grading Rubric for Lab Report Activity

BIOS 255 Week 4 Lymphatic System

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Discussion: The Lymphatic System

Required Resources

Read/review the following resources for this activity:

• Textbook: Chapter 21
• Week 4 Concepts

Initial Post Instructions

Choose one of the following topics for your initial post:

A. How do the various components of the lymphatic system operate? We have discussed many organ systems. In what ways are components of the lymphatic system involved in other organ systems? Focus on one element of this system and provide an in-depth view of its contribution to our overall health.

B. How do the various elements of the nonspecific immune system function in providing daily protection against a variety of pathogens? Each student should provide a unique aspect of the nonspecific immune system and educate others on its function and effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) against one class of pathogens.

Primary lymphatic vessels transport lymph from the interstitial space to the regional lymph nodes. Secondary lymphatic vessels then carry the lymph to the main veins. Lymph nodes store lymphocytes, which are released into the circulation during infection. The thymus is the site for T lymphocyte maturation. The immune function of the lymphatic system contributes to overall health. Transporting lipids from the intestines to the liver also partially relies on lymphatic vessels. The spleen filters blood, stores some blood cells, destroys aged cells, and participates in hematopoiesis early in life. “The ubiquitous system of distribution of lymphatic vessels ensures that harmful substances are collected, filtered, neutralized, and excreted” (Sneddon & Elwell, 2020).

References

Ganong, W. F., & Ganong, W. (1995). Review of medical physiology (p. 59). Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange.

BIOS 255 Week 4 Lymphatic System

Sneddon, M., & Elwell, R. (2020). Essential to health yet overlooked: the vital role of the lymphatic system. British Journal of Nursing, 29(13), 744-747. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2020.29.13.744

BIOS 255 Week 3 Lab-Blood Pressure/Blood Vessel Labeling

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels

Learning objectives:

• Identify the structural layers of arteries and veins.
• Distinguish between the structure of arteries and veins.
• Explain the factors that affect arterial blood flow and blood pressure.
• Define shock and identify the signs of shock.
• Identify key blood vessels of the cardiac, systemic, and pulmonary circulations.

Introduction:

Blood circulates throughout the body via three types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins. Both arteries and veins are made up of three distinct layers of tissue, while capillaries consist of a single layer. Several factors influence blood pressure and flow within these vessels. Additionally, there are various mechanisms through which shock can occur. In this study, we will follow the path of blood through pulmonary and systemic circulations, identifying the major arteries and veins along the way. Interactive 3D models will be used to explore blood vessels in more detail.

Assignment:

Part 1: 

Complete the activities in the following sections of Anatomy.TV Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, Blood Flow and Pressure, Circulatory Pathways, Vessels of the Trunk, Vessels of the Head and Neck, and Vessels of the Limbs.

To access Anatomy.TV, navigate to:
Resources tab > Library > Library Resources-Database A-Z > Anatomy.TV > Cardiovascular System > Assigned Sections

Once you are in the Cardiovascular System section, scroll through and complete the activities. As you proceed, keep a lab report handy to record data.

Part 2: 

Complete the lab report.

Blood Vessel Lab Report

1. Describe the different types of blood vessels by completing the following chart:

2. How does the cardiovascular center alter parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulation of the sinoatrial (SA) node to maintain homeostasis when a fall in arterial pressure is detected by baroreceptors?

When a fall in arterial pressure is detected, the cardiovascular center decreases parasympathetic stimulation to the SA node via the vagus nerve while increasing sympathetic stimulation through the cardiac accelerator nerves.

3. Describe the signs and symptoms of shock.

The signs and symptoms of shock include decreased blood pressure, sweating, increased heart rate, thirst, dehydration, confusion, reduced urination, and, in severe cases, acidosis lactic.

4. Identify the missing arteries from the schematic:

• Aortic arch
• Right subclavian
• Left vertebral
• Right external carotid
• Left internal carotid

5. Identify the missing arteries from the schematic:

• Aortic arch
• Right subclavian
• Left vertebral
• Right external carotid
• Left internal carotid

6. Trace the pathway of a drop of blood from the heart to the top of the foot (dorsalis pedis artery):

• Ascending aorta
• Aortic arch
• Thoracic aorta
• Descending aorta
• Right/left common iliac arteries
• Right/left femoral arteries
• Right/left popliteal arteries
• Right/left anterior/posterior tibial arteries
• Dorsalis pedis artery

7. Trace the pathway of a drop of blood from the superior mesenteric vein to the right atrium:

• Superior mesenteric vein
• Hepatic portal vein
• Liver
• Hepatic vein
• Inferior vena cava
• Right atrium

8. Define the following terms:

a. Portal system: A system of veins that carries blood between capillary networks.

b. Function of the hepatic portal system: The hepatic portal system transports blood from the digestive tract, spleen, and pancreas to the liver for filtration and nutrient processing.

Grading Rubric for Lab Report:

BIOS 255 Week 3 Lab-Blood Pressure/Blood Vessel Labeling

BIOS 255 Week 2 Cardiovascular System: Heart

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Understanding the Cardiovascular System: A Comprehensive Overview of the Heart and Its Functions

The cardiovascular system plays a crucial role in maintaining life by delivering oxygenated blood to the body and removing waste products. Central to this system is the heart, a powerful muscular pump that supports both systemic and pulmonary circulation. In this article, we will delve into the anatomy and function of the heart, explore blood flow through its chambers and valves, define critical terms like stroke volume and cardiac output, and discuss the heart’s response to exercise.

Heart Anatomy: Chambers and Valves

The heart is composed of four chambers, two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers). The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava, which then passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there, blood flows through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries, where it is transported to the lungs for oxygenation.

On the left side, oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins. The blood then moves through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. Finally, the left ventricle pumps this oxygenated blood through the aortic valve and into the aorta, distributing it to the rest of the body.

The heart’s valves play a critical role in ensuring one-way blood flow. The tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aortic valves prevent backflow, allowing the heart to function efficiently.

Blood Flow Through the Heart

Blood flow through the heart follows a specific sequence:

1. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava.
2. Blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
3. It passes through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries and travels to the lungs.
4. Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
5. Blood flows through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.
6. Finally, it is pumped through the aortic valve into the aorta, where it is delivered to the body.

This continuous circulation ensures that all body cells receive oxygen and nutrients, while waste products like carbon dioxide are removed.

Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output

Stroke volume (SV) refers to the amount of blood ejected from a ventricle during each contraction. It is a key determinant of cardiac performance and varies with factors like body size, physical fitness, and health.

Cardiac output (CO) is the total volume of blood the heart pumps per minute. It can be calculated using the formula:

CO = SV × HR (Heart Rate)

Cardiac output is vital for assessing heart function and the body’s overall health. Increased heart rate or stroke volume will lead to an increase in cardiac output, allowing the body to meet higher oxygen demands during physical activity.

The Cardiovascular Response to Exercise

During exercise, the heart must work harder to meet the body’s increased oxygen and energy needs. The cardiovascular system responds by increasing heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output. Blood pressure may also rise temporarily to ensure adequate circulation to muscles and other tissues.

For instance, during intense physical activity, the heart pumps more blood by increasing stroke volume and heart rate. This allows more oxygen to reach active muscles and helps remove waste products like lactic acid. Understanding this dynamic response is crucial for athletes, trainers, and healthcare professionals in assessing cardiovascular fitness and performance.

Measuring Cardiac Output and Blood Pressure

Cardiac output and blood pressure are essential metrics for evaluating heart health. Cardiac output can be measured through various techniques, including echocardiography and Doppler ultrasound, which provide real-time data on heart function.

Blood pressure is typically measured using a sphygmomanometer, which records systolic and diastolic pressures. Systolic pressure represents the force exerted when the heart contracts, while diastolic pressure is the force exerted when the heart is at rest between beats. Maintaining healthy blood pressure levels is critical to avoiding cardiovascular issues like hypertension and heart disease.

Cardiovascular Health Assessment: A Case Study

In a cardiovascular lab setting, measurements of heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output during exercise provide insights into individual heart function. Consider the following data:

Subject A demonstrates a healthy cardiovascular response to exercise, with increased heart rate and stroke volume. However, Subject E exhibits lower stroke volume and cardiac output during exercise, suggesting potential heart issues such as aortic valve regurgitation. This condition forces the heart to work harder, increasing systolic pressure while diastolic pressure drops, a sign of inefficient blood flow.

Key Takeaways from Cardiovascular Lab

From this cardiovascular lab, two key lessons emerge:

1. Understanding Healthy Cardiac Variables: Normal resting heart rate ranges from 60 to 70 bpm, stroke volume averages around 70 ml per beat, and cardiac output is typically 5 liters per minute at rest.

2. Doppler Effect Application in Cardiac Studies: The Doppler effect is critical in assessing blood flow and heart function. It describes how changes in frequency or wavelength occur as the source and observer move relative to each other—much like the change in sound of a passing ambulance.

Conclusion

The cardiovascular system, particularly the heart, is vital to life, constantly adjusting to meet the body’s demands. Understanding the anatomy of the heart, the process of blood circulation, and how factors like stroke volume and cardiac output function can offer valuable insights into heart health. Exercise places increased demands on the cardiovascular system, and monitoring heart function during physical activity can help detect potential heart conditions early. Maintaining cardiovascular health is essential for overall well-being, and regular exercise, along with proper health assessments, can ensure that the heart continues to function efficiently throughout life.

BIOS 255 Week 1 Lab Instructions

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-255: Anatomy & Physiology III with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Lab Instructions:

Mastering Laboratory Safety and Blood Typing Techniques

Laboratory exercises play a crucial role in the foundational understanding of human anatomy and physiology. Week 1 of your laboratory experience includes critical activities such as a Lab Safety Quiz, Blood Typing Experiment, and a Blood Histology PowerPoint presentation. Below, we provide a comprehensive overview of the tasks and expectations, which are designed to enhance your skills in laboratory safety, blood analysis, and histological identification of blood components.

Laboratory Safety Quiz: A Foundational Step

Before diving into the intricacies of blood typing and histology, it is vital to ensure your comprehension of lab safety procedures. This initial activity emphasizes the importance of maintaining a safe environment during laboratory experiments.

Key Points for the Lab Safety Quiz:

• Review Safety Guidelines: The safety procedures provided in the Chamberlain University Laboratory Safety Training must be thoroughly reviewed. These guidelines will keep you and your peers safe during all laboratory activities.
• Certification Completion: After reviewing the slides, complete the online Lab Safety Quiz by the due date specified in your Canvas course. This certification ensures that you understand and can implement the safety measures required in the lab.

Points for this activity: 5 points

Blood Typing Experiment and Analysis

The next critical component of Week 1 is a hands-on Blood Typing Experiment, where you’ll learn how to identify different blood types and understand the importance of blood compatibility during transfusions.

Part 1: Pre-Lab Activity

Before the laboratory session, ensure that you complete the Pre-Lab Activity. This will equip you with the necessary background knowledge to understand how antibodies and antigens interact during blood typing.

• Submission: Each student must submit their completed Pre-Lab Activity to the designated Canvas assignment by the due date.

Points for this activity: 5 points

Part 2: Conducting the Blood Typing Experiment

Working in teams, you will conduct the blood typing experiment. This practical exercise will involve analyzing blood samples using Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-Rh serums to determine blood types based on agglutination reactions.

1. Preparation: Gather the necessary supplies, which include the blood typing slide, serums, and toothpicks.
2. Experiment Procedure:
   • Place one drop of each blood sample into the designated wells on the slide.
   • Add the Anti-A serum to well A, Anti-B serum to well B, and Anti-Rh serum to well C.
   • Stir each well with separate toothpicks for 30 seconds, and dispose of the toothpicks after each use to avoid cross-contamination.
   • Observe the results and record any agglutination reactions, which will help determine the blood type.
3. Submission: Each team will submit one completed worksheet to Canvas, ensuring all team members’ names are included.

Points for this activity: 10 points

Blood Histology PowerPoint

The Blood Histology activity focuses on identifying, photographing, and labeling the formed elements of blood. This assignment will help solidify your understanding of blood cells and their functions.

Step-by-Step Instructions:

1. Obtain a Blood Smear Slide: Using a microscope, examine a prepared blood smear slide.
2. Identify and Photograph Blood Cells: You will locate and photograph the following blood elements:
   • Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
   • Neutrophil
   • Lymphocyte
   • Monocyte
   • Eosinophil
   • Basophil (can be found online due to its rarity in healthy samples)
   • Platelets (small purple dots)
3. Create a PowerPoint:
   • For each blood element, create a slide with your photograph and provide a brief description including its function, normal concentration, and conditions that could increase or decrease its concentration.
   • Ensure that you follow APA formatting and cite your sources according to Chamberlain’s Academic Integrity Guidelines.
4. Submission: Submit the PowerPoint presentation to the appropriate Canvas assignment by the due date.

Points for this activity: 10 points

Understanding Blood Typing: Crucial for Safe Transfusions

Blood typing is essential for safe blood transfusions. A mismatch between donor and recipient blood types can result in a dangerous reaction, known as agglutination, which may cause life-threatening complications like acute renal failure.

The Role of Antibodies and Antigens:

• Blood types are determined by specific proteins (antigens) on the surface of red blood cells. If a person receives blood with incompatible antigens, their body will produce antibodies that attack the foreign blood cells, leading to agglutination.
• For example, a person with Type A blood has A antigens and produces antibodies against Type B blood. If they were to receive Type B blood, their body would react negatively, causing the red blood cells to clump together.

ABO and Rh Systems

Blood is classified based on the presence or absence of two antigens (A and B), and an additional antigen called the Rh factor. This leads to eight possible blood types:

• O Positive: 38% of the U.S. population
• A Positive: 34%
• B Positive: 9%
• O Negative: 7%
• A Negative: 6%
• AB Positive: 3%
• B Negative: 2%
• AB Negative: 1%

Understanding these types is critical in determining blood compatibility during medical procedures.

Conducting a Blood Typing Test: Step-by-Step

The blood typing test in the lab will provide you with hands-on experience. Below are the materials you’ll need for the test:

• Anti-A, Anti-B, and Anti-D (Rh) serums
• Blood typing slides
• Toothpicks for stirring
• Blood samples from donors

Procedure:

1. Place one drop of blood into each well on the typing slide.
2. Add the corresponding serums to each well (Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-Rh).
3. Stir each well and observe the results for agglutination, which indicates a positive reaction.
4. Record your findings, as shown in the example table:

BIOS 255 Week 1 Lab Instructions

Conclusion

By mastering these Week 1 lab activities, you will develop essential skills in laboratory safety, blood typing, and histological analysis. Understanding the role of antigens and antibodies, as well as the consequences of incompatible blood transfusions, is fundamental for healthcare professionals. Make sure to follow all due dates as outlined in your Canvas calendar and adhere to academic integrity guidelines throughout your work.