BIOS 252 Week 7 Case Study: Thyroid

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Thyroid and Hormonal Effects on the Body

The thyroid gland, along with its associated hormones, influences every cell and organ within the body. It plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism, affecting how the body burns energy, which in turn impacts weight loss or gain. Additionally, the thyroid gland can influence the heart rate, either slowing it down or speeding it up. One common condition affecting the thyroid is a goiter, which refers to an abnormal enlargement of the gland. As the thyroid becomes increasingly damaged, its ability to produce adequate thyroid hormones diminishes. In response to low thyroid hormone levels, the pituitary gland releases more thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) to stimulate the thyroid. This process of stimulation can lead to the development of a goiter due to the thyroid’s increased growth.

Hypothyroidism and Grave’s Disease

In this case, the patient appears to exhibit signs of hypothyroidism, which results from an underactive thyroid gland. When the thyroid fails to produce sufficient hormones, the body compensates by stimulating the gland to increase its output. This over-stimulation can lead to swelling and the appearance of a goiter. Another consideration is the possibility of Grave’s disease, which could explain symptoms such as the patient’s complaint of the room feeling hot despite it normally being cold, as well as her reports of blurred and double vision. These symptoms align with common presentations of Grave’s disease, which involves the overproduction of thyroid hormones.

Conclusion

Based on the patient’s symptoms and thyroid-related issues, it is important to further investigate the possibility of hypothyroidism or Grave’s disease. Both conditions have significant effects on the body’s overall function and require specific treatment approaches to manage the hormonal imbalances and other related symptoms.

BIOS 252 Week 7 Case Study: Thyroid

References

MacGill, M. (November 11, 2020). Everything you need to know about a goiter.

BIOS 252 Week 6 Case Study

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Introduction

Diabetes is a chronic condition that affects millions of individuals globally. It is a metabolic disorder marked by disruptions in insulin secretion, which is vital for controlling glucose levels in the body. Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, allows the body to utilize glucose derived from food as energy. When insulin production is impaired, the body’s ability to regulate glucose levels is compromised, leading to either hyperglycemia (elevated blood sugar levels) or hypoglycemia (low blood sugar levels). Both conditions pose significant health risks if not properly managed.

BIOS 252 Week 6 Case Study

Hyperglycemia is diagnosed when blood glucose levels exceed 125 mg/dL. This condition can lead to symptoms such as lethargy, blurred vision, slurred speech, ketoacidosis, and, in severe cases, a diabetic coma. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood glucose levels fall below 70 mg/dL, leading to loss of consciousness, cognitive impairments, and neurological complications. For effective management of diabetes, it is essential to keep blood glucose levels within a healthy range through a combination of medication, lifestyle modifications, and careful monitoring of diet and physical activity. Healthcare providers play a crucial role in helping patients develop a personalized treatment plan that fits their unique needs.

Another important aspect of diabetes management involves understanding the patient’s medical history. Certain medications and conditions can affect blood glucose regulation. For instance, drugs used to treat high blood pressure or heart disease may elevate glucose levels, complicating diabetes management. Thus, understanding a patient’s medical history is essential for creating an effective treatment plan that accounts for these factors.

Management of Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia, a condition resulting from extremely low blood sugar levels, can be dangerous if left untreated. The nervous system, which depends on glucose and oxygen for energy, may suffer severe impairment when deprived of a consistent supply of glucose. As a result, neural functions such as cognitive tasks and consciousness may be compromised. In the worst-case scenario, seizures or comas can occur. To prevent hypoglycemia, diabetic patients should closely monitor their blood glucose levels and adopt preventive strategies, such as eating frequent small meals throughout the day or carrying glucose tablets to raise blood sugar levels when necessary.

Hyperglycemia, on the other hand, occurs when the body fails to metabolize sugar correctly, causing an accumulation in the bloodstream. In a healthy person, the kidneys reabsorb glucose and eliminate waste through urine, maintaining proper glucose balance. However, in diabetic individuals, glucose reabsorption is slow due to the buildup of sugar in the bloodstream. This leads to osmotic diuresis, where the body attempts to eliminate excess glucose through excessive urination—up to 10 to 15 liters per day in some cases. If hydration is inadequate, this process can result in dehydration and, potentially, a loss of consciousness. In addition to medications like insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents, lifestyle changes such as a balanced diet, regular exercise, and stress management can aid in controlling hyperglycemia.

In the absence of sufficient insulin to regulate blood sugar and provide energy, the body may turn to fat as an energy source, leading to the production of ketones. This can result in diabetic ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition that is characterized by the accumulation of acids (ketones) in the blood. If left uncontrolled, individuals with this condition may emit a sweet, rotten smell due to the buildup of ketones.

References

Mathew, P., & Thoppil, D. (2021). Hypoglycemia.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534841/

Mouri, M. I., & Badireddy, M. (2022). Hyperglycemia.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430900/

BIOS 252 Week 6 Case Study

Saladin, K. S. (2020). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Sapra, A., & Bhandari, P. (2022). Diabetes Mellitus.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551501/

Table 1: Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia Overview

Table 2: Management Strategies for Diabetes

BIOS 252 Week 5 Case Study

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Introduction

The human body, a complex structure, is prone to injury from a variety of sources. In the scenario of the patient under discussion, they have sustained multiple injuries due to an explosion. Such injuries can be severe, necessitating a comprehensive assessment to evaluate their full extent. One of the most serious injuries suffered is the fracture of the cribriform plate, which is located in the ethmoid bone. The cribriform plate forms the roof of the nasal cavity and is particularly susceptible to fractures caused by blunt force trauma or the primary blast effect of an explosion. A fracture in this region poses a significant risk of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) leakage, which can lead to further complications such as infection, meningitis, or pneumocephalus (Gomez & Pickup, 2022).

Injury Assessment and Diagnostic Procedures

To assess the severity of the patient’s injuries, a CT scan is initially performed. However, this may not always reveal the presence of CSF leakage. Consequently, a non-invasive Pledget study is carried out. This procedure involves inserting small cotton pads (pledgets) into the patient’s nasal cavity. The presence of a clear or yellowish fluid ring surrounding the blood-soaked pledget is indicative of CSF leakage. However, the study does not identify the exact location of the leakage. In addition to the cribriform plate injury, the patient presents with visual distortions, which may be attributed to ruptured blood vessels within the vitreous body. This jelly-like structure inside the eye plays a critical role in maintaining intraocular pressure and preventing distortion during eye movement (Saladin, 2020). Damage to this area can impair vision. To diagnose vitreous hemorrhage, a fluorescein angiography is performed, where a dye is injected into the bloodstream. This dye highlights any leakage from damaged vessels in the eye, helping confirm the condition.

Bilateral Tympanic Membrane Perforation

Additionally, the patient has suffered bilateral tympanic membrane perforation. The tympanic membrane, commonly known as the eardrum, is a thin barrier that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. It can only tolerate limited pressure differentials, and ruptures when exposed to pressures exceeding 35 Psi (Baum et al., 2010). Given the proximity of the patient to the explosion, it is reasonable to assume the blast waves exceeded this pressure threshold, causing the perforations. Furthermore, blast waves over 40 Psi can also affect hollow organs, such as the lungs, by shearing and fragmenting tissues due to the high pressure (Jorolemon et al., 2022).

Table Summary of Injuries and Diagnostic Procedures

Conclusion

The injuries sustained by the patient from the explosion are severe and warrant immediate medical intervention. The cribriform plate fracture presents the most significant risk due to the potential for CSF leakage, necessitating a CT scan and Pledget study for proper diagnosis. Visual distortions, potentially caused by vitreous hemorrhage, require fluorescein angiography to confirm the presence of hemorrhage. Lastly, the bilateral tympanic membrane perforation, caused by the blast wave, also requires prompt medical attention. A coordinated medical response is essential to develop an effective treatment plan that addresses each of these injuries.

References

Baum, J. D., Rattigan, M. I., Sills, E. S., & Walsh, A. P. (2010). Clinical presentation and conservative management of tympanic membrane perforation during intrapartum. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/856045

Gomez, J., & Pickup, S. (2022). Cribriform Plate Fractures. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562192/

Jorolemon, M. R., Lopez, R. A., & Krywko, D. M. (2022). Blast Injuries. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430914/

BIOS 252 Week 5 Case Study

Saladin, K. S. (2020). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education (US).

BIOS 252 Week 4 Case Study: ANS

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Autonomic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Response

Upon analyzing the signs and symptoms, it becomes clear that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is experiencing significant upregulation in the parasympathetic nervous system. The three signs that indicate this heightened activity are sweating, bradycardia, and vomiting. These symptoms align with the parasympathetic system’s role in maintaining normal bodily functions, which, according to Guy-Evans (2021), aims to reduce activity and preserve equilibrium within the body. These symptoms are classic indicators of parasympathetic dominance, as they reflect the system’s regulatory effect on slowing the heart rate (bradycardia), increasing bodily secretions (sweating), and stimulating digestive activities (vomiting).

Muscarine and Muscarinic Receptors

Muscarine, a compound found in certain mushrooms, binds to muscarinic receptors in the autonomic nervous system, specifically in the parasympathetic branch. These receptors are typically activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, as explained by Kudlak and Tadi (2021). This interaction is significant in explaining the physiological responses observed in parasympathetic activation, such as excessive sweating, bradycardia, and gastrointestinal disturbances.

In the case of the patients, it was initially perplexing that three out of four individuals were experiencing excessive sweating. However, upon further examination of their dietary intake, it was revealed that the M3 muscarinic receptors in their sweat glands were activated by acetylcholine, leading to excessive secretions. This aligns with the role of acetylcholine in stimulating bodily secretions, explaining the observed symptoms.

Anticholinergic Treatment

To manage this issue, atropine, an anticholinergic drug, is often used. Anticholinergics are medications that block the action of acetylcholine, which stops certain involuntary body functions and muscle movements (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012). According to Gal (2022), anticholinergic drugs work by inhibiting acetylcholine in the cholinergic system, which is why atropine is effective in this scenario. It prevents excessive secretions, such as sweating, and alleviates other symptoms related to parasympathetic overactivity.

References

• Gal, K. (2022). Anticholinergic drugs: What to know. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323514
• Guy-Evans, O. (2021). Peripheral Nervous System. Definition, Parts, and Function. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/peripheral-nervous-system.html

BIOS 252 Week 4 Case Study: ANS

• Kudlak, M., & Tadi, P. (2021). Physiology, Muscarinic Receptor. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555909/
• National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2012). LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury. National Institutes of Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548287/

Table: Key Information on the Parasympathetic Nervous System

BIOS 252 Week 3 Case Study: CNS-PNS

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study: CNS-PNS

Paraplegia refers to the inability to voluntarily move the lower parts of the body. This condition affects all or part of the trunk, legs, and pelvic organs. It is characterized by a loss of motor and sensory function due to damage in the spinal cord, specifically affecting the regions responsible for movement in the lower extremities.

Basic Reflex Pathway

A basic reflex pathway involves the following parts:

1. Sensor: Somatic receptors located in the skin, muscles, and tendons detect changes or stimuli.
2. Sensory Neuron: Afferent nerve fibers transport signals from the somatic receptors to the posterior horn of the spinal cord or the brainstem.
3. Control Center: This integrating center consists of the neurons within the gray matter of the spinal cord or brainstem, where synapsing occurs.
4. Motor Neuron: Efferent nerve fibers carry motor signals from the anterior horn of the spinal cord to the muscles.
5. Muscle: The effector muscle, innervated by the efferent nerve fiber, carries out the motor response to the initial stimulus.

Babinski’s Sign and Normal Response

The plantar reflex is a response elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt object. In healthy adults, this stimulation results in a downward flexion of the hallux (big toe). This is the normal response. However, an upward extension of the hallux, known as the Babinski response or Babinski sign, can indicate neurological issues. Named after neurologist Joseph Babinski, the presence of this sign in adults can suggest disease affecting the brain or spinal cord. In infants, this reflex is considered normal and primitive but typically disappears as the nervous system matures.

Babinski Sign vs. Normal Response

A Babinski sign is often observed when there is damage to the corticospinal tract (CST), a descending fiber pathway that originates from the cerebral cortex and extends through the brainstem and spinal cord. When the CST is damaged, it may result in an abnormal plantar reflex, where the hallux extends upward. This abnormal reflex can sometimes be the first sign of a serious disease or lesion in the CST, prompting further neurological investigation through imaging such as CT scans or MRI, as well as a lumbar puncture to study cerebrospinal fluid.

Not a First-Order Neuron Issue

The Babinski reflex primarily tests the integrity of the CST, rather than first-order neurons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system. Damage to first-order neurons, which transmit sensory signals from the periphery to the central nervous system, would likely result in sensory loss rather than an abnormal reflex. The presence of a Babinski sign, therefore, suggests central nervous system pathology, such as lesions in the brain or spinal cord, rather than damage to peripheral nerves. This distinction helps in diagnosing conditions like stroke or spinal cord injury.

Lesion Location in the Spinal Cord

A Babinski sign typically indicates damage to upper motor neurons and the corticospinal tract. Lesions in the descending fibers of the CST, which originate from the cerebral cortex and pass through the brainstem and spinal cord, can result in this abnormal reflex. These lesions can disrupt the normal transmission of motor signals to the muscles, leading to the characteristic Babinski response. Identifying the location of the lesion through imaging is crucial in diagnosing and treating conditions affecting motor function.

References

Acharya, A. B., Jamil, R. T., & Dewey, J. J. (2022). Babinski Reflex. In StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519009/

CK-12. (2014, November 13). Reflexes: Neurons in Action. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://www.ck12.org/book/human-biology-nervoussystem/section/5.1/

Wikipedia contributors. (2022, June 12). Reflex arc. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reflex_arc&oldid=1092719613

BIOS 252 Week 3 Case Study: CNS-PNS

Wikipedia contributors. (2022, November 4). Plantar reflex. In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 12, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plantar_reflex&oldid=1119913988

BIOS 252 Week 2 Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis.

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Week 2 Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis

Required Resources

Read and review the following resources for this activity:

• Textbook
• Weekly Concepts
• A minimum of one scholarly source

Scenario/Summary

A 30-year-old female with multiple sclerosis (MS) has come for her routine checkup with her neurologist. Her first signs and symptoms appeared several years earlier but were not concerning initially. The only symptom she experienced was a tingling sensation that caused mild discomfort, which later subsided. However, the situation became worrisome when the sensation evolved into pain and tingling. During each cycle, she began to lose coordination and, over time, never fully recovered from the previous flare.

Deliverables

Answer the following questions and save your responses in a Microsoft Word document. Ensure that a scholarly resource is provided in APA format to support your answers.

1. What cellular structure is degenerating and rebuilding in MS?
   In multiple sclerosis, the cellular structures that degenerate are the myelin sheath and oligodendrocytes, which are replaced by hardened scar tissue. This damage interrupts nerve conduction, affecting parts of the central nervous system. When the nerve covering is damaged, the transmission of nerve signals either stops or slows down (Saladin, 2019).
   On the other hand, the neural stem cells (NSCs) in the central nervous system are responsible for rebuilding. These cells produce neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and other myelin-producing cells, helping to repair damaged tissue (Saladin, 2019).

2. Does this explain the progression we see with the signs and symptoms? Explain why.
   Yes, the degeneration and rebuilding of the myelin sheath and neural stem cells in MS explain the progression of the signs and symptoms. As the nerve conduction is disturbed, it affects parts of the central nervous system. These disturbances are often associated with common MS symptoms, including double vision, blindness, speech defects, neurosis, tremors, and numbness (Myelin, 2022).

3. When there are issues with neural tissue like this, why do they often look into the eyes?
   When neural tissue issues arise, doctors often examine the eyes because MS affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. MS causes the immune system to attack the myelin sheath, which insulates the nerves. Symptoms like double vision, color loss, or blindness are common. The inflammation and damage to the optic nerve, known as optic neuritis, can cause eye pain that worsens with movement and is one of the first signs of MS (Saladin, 2019).

4. Assign the following early symptoms to either the sensory, motor, or autonomic nervous system. Then, describe how MS would cause these symptoms.

BIOS 252 Week 2 Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis.

BIOS 252 Week 2 Case Study: Multiple Sclerosis.

References

Myelin. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. (2022). Retrieved March 7, 2022, from https://www.nationalmssociety.org/What-is-MS/Definition-of-MS/Myelin
Saladin, K. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

BIOS 252 Week 1 Case Study: Muscle

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-252 Anatomy & Physiology II with Lab

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study Questions

References

Leversedge, F. J. (2018, April). Wrist Sprains. Retrieved from OrthoInfo: https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases–conditions/wrist-sprains

BIOS 252 Week 1 Case Study: Muscle

Luna, D. (2021, March 22). Muscle Hypertrophy vs Hyperplasia: The Difference Explained. Retrieved from Inspire Us: https://www.inspireusafoundation.org/muscle-hypertrophy-vs-hyperplasia/