BIOS 251 Week 8 Discussion: Reflection and Looking Ahead

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

 Discussion: Reflection and Looking Ahead

Learning anatomy and physiology plays a crucial role in healthcare careers. Anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms and their parts, while physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living systems. Together, these fields provide essential knowledge on how organisms, organ systems, and individual organs function. For healthcare professionals, particularly nurses, a deep understanding of anatomy and physiology is vital. This knowledge assists in assessing, diagnosing, and evaluating patients’ health. It also helps healthcare providers track a patient’s progress and develop appropriate care plans. By understanding how organs work, how they are connected, and how they function, healthcare professionals can better comprehend a patient’s overall condition, making anatomy and physiology indispensable in nursing practice.

References

Johnston, A. N. (2010). Anatomy for nurses: providing students with the best learning experience. Nurse Education in Practice, 10(4), 222–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2009.11.009

Wikipedia contributors. (2022, October 5). Anatomy. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 22, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anatomy&oldid=1114226463

BIOS 251 Week 8 Discussion: Reflection and Looking Ahead

Wikipedia contributors. (2022, October 6). Physiology. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 22, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physiology&oldid=1114378673

Verve College. (n.d.). Why Learning Anatomy and Physiology is Important for LPNs. Retrieved from https://vervecollege.edu/why-learning-anatomy-and-physiology-is-important-forlpns

BIOS 251 Week 7 Case Study: Joints

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study: Joints

Joints, or articulations, are the points where two or more bones meet, enabling both movement and stability. Joints can be classified either by their structure or by their function. Structural classification divides joints into three types: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial, based on the materials that compose them and the presence or absence of a cavity. Functional classification categorizes joints as synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), or diarthroses (freely movable) (Saladin, 2019).

The knee is an example of a hinge joint, which is a type of synovial joint. Hinge joints permit movement in one plane, such as bending and straightening. Examples include the elbow, knee, interphalangeal joints, and the tibiotalar joint of the ankle (Saladin, 2019).

The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is located in the middle of the knee, running diagonally between the tibia and the femur. It prevents the tibia from sliding forward and provides rotational stability to the knee. The ACL works in conjunction with the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) to stabilize the knee and protect it from hyperextension. Together, the ACL and PCL ensure the body’s weight is centered on the knee joint, preventing damage to other ligaments (Saladin, 2019).

Hemarthrosis refers to bleeding into a joint, which can cause joint pain, swelling, and reduced range of motion. Hemarthrosis can result from injuries or from bleeding disorders like hemophilia (Saladin, 2019).

BIOS 251 Week 7 Case Study: Joints

Regarding Eli’s recovery, it is possible for him to return to playing sports the following year. Rehabilitation is essential both before and after surgery. Preoperatively, physical therapy will help reduce knee pain and swelling, while strengthening the surrounding muscles. Postoperatively, the rehabilitation process begins immediately, focusing on regaining range of motion, strength, and stability. The recommended timeline for a full return to sports is between six months to one year, provided that Eli adheres strictly to his rehabilitation plan to prevent complications and re-injury (Saladin, 2019).

References

Saladin, K. S., Gan, C. A., & Cushman, H. N. (2021). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Saladin, K. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

BIOS 251 Week 6 Case Study: Bone

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Week 6 Case Study: Bone

There are four types of cells involved in bone tissue generation. The first type is osteogenic cells, which originate from embryonic mesenchyme. These cells multiply and eventually give rise to osteoblasts, the bone-forming cells. Osteoblasts are responsible for synthesizing the organic components of bone and promoting its mineralization (Saladin, Gan, & Cushman, 2021). Additionally, osteoblasts have an endocrine function, secreting osteocalcin, which stimulates insulin secretion from the pancreas, increases insulin sensitivity in adipocytes, and limits the growth of adipose tissue. Osteoblasts also play a crucial role in bone-building, a process known as osteogenesis. They form rows in the endosteum and inner layer of the periosteum. Stress and fractures trigger mitosis, increasing the number of osteoblasts to repair the damaged bone (Saladin et al., 2021).

Once osteoblasts become trapped in the bone matrix they produce, they transform into osteocytes. Osteocytes communicate with other osteoblasts and osteocytes through gap junctions, facilitating the exchange of nutrients and metabolic waste. Their functions include bone matrix resorption and deposition, maintenance of bone density, and regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the blood (Saladin et al., 2021). The fourth cell type is osteoclasts, which are responsible for dissolving bone tissue. These cells have a ruffled border that increases their surface area, improving their efficiency in bone resorption (Saladin et al., 2021).

BIOS 251 Week 6 Case Study: Bone

The process of fracture repair involves four key steps: hematoma formation, bone generation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling. Initially, blood vessels tear, forming a blood clot or hematoma at the fracture site. This seals the blood vessels and results in the death of nearby bone cells. Over a few days, capillaries grow into the hematoma, and phagocytic cells remove dead tissue (Boundless, 2021). Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that connect the broken bone ends, while osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone. The fibrocartilaginous callus is eventually replaced by a bony callus of spongy bone, firmly joining the broken bone ends within two months (Boundless, 2021). The final step, remodeling, involves osteoclasts and osteoblasts reshaping the bony callus to restore its original form (Boundless, 2021).

The epiphyseal plate, responsible for longitudinal growth in long bones, plays a significant role in fractures affecting growth plates. A fracture in this area can result in the bone healing crooked, shorter, or longer than expected (OrthoInfo, 2021). Based on the description, the fracture in this case appears to be a stable fracture. In stable fractures, the broken bone ends align correctly and are only slightly displaced. Since the injury involved a tibial fracture without any signs of bone shattering or breaking through the skin, it is consistent with a stable fracture (OrthoInfo, 2021).

References

Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Biology. Lumen. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/bone/

Fractures (broken bones) – OrthoInfo – AAOS. (n.d.). OrthoInfo. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases–conditions/fractures-broken-bones/

Growth plate fractures – OrthoInfo – AAOS. (n.d.). OrthoInfo. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases–conditions/growth-plate-fractures/

BIOS 251 Week 5 Integumentary system lab

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Integumentary System

Learning Objectives:

• Identify the tissue and cellular features of the skin.
• Identify the structures associated with the skin.
• Correlate the anatomical features to their functions.
• Identify the role of the skin in thermoregulation and wound healing.

Part A: Anatomy of the Skin

I. Microscopic Anatomy of the Skin

The skin has multiple layers, each serving distinct functions. Below is a table outlining the structure and corresponding function of each layer.

II. Gross Anatomy of the Skin

The gross anatomy of the skin consists of various structures that play key roles in protection, sensation, and thermoregulation. Below is a table listing these structures and their functions.

Part B: Thermoregulation

1. Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism Components:

   • A. Receptor
   • B. Control Center
   • C. Effectors

2. Physiological Events During Thermoregulation:

   Thermoregulation is a form of negative feedback that helps maintain homeostasis. When the body temperature drops, shivering occurs due to muscle contractions that generate heat. This process helps to raise the body’s temperature back to normal levels. Conversely, when the body overheats, sweating helps to cool the body through the evaporation of sweat on the skin.

3. Condition Due to Increased Body Temperature:

   Hyperthermia is the condition that occurs when the body’s heat-regulating mechanisms are overwhelmed, leading to an excessive rise in internal temperature.

Part C: Skin Wound Healing (Anatomy TV)

1. Comparison of Epidermal and Dermal Wound Healing:

   Epidermal wound healing occurs when the epidermis is affected. This process is quicker and involves only the superficial layer of the skin. On the other hand, dermal wound healing, also known as deep wound healing, involves the dermis and takes longer due to the involvement of deeper skin layers.

2. First Step in Wound Healing and its Significance:

   The first step in wound healing is hemostasis, which begins immediately after an injury. This process is critical as it stops the bleeding through vasoconstriction and the formation of blood clots.

3. Importance of Inflammation in Wound Healing:

   Inflammation is crucial because it controls bleeding and prevents infection. This stage involves the influx of leukocytes to the wound, which help to remove damaged cells, pathogens, and bacteria.

4. Fibrosis in Deep Wound Healing:

   Fibrosis occurs during deep wound healing when the injured tissue is replaced by scar tissue, resulting in the restoration of the tissue’s structure and function.

Part D: Case Studies

Case Study 1:

Jane suffered partial thickness burns to the anterior region of her legs.

1. Definition of Partial Thickness Burns:

   Partial thickness burns, also known as second-degree burns, involve the epidermis and part of the dermis. These burns are characterized by redness, blistering, swelling, and pain.

2. Loss of Sensation:

   Jane likely lost sensation in the affected area due to nerve damage, a common consequence of second-degree burns.

3. Burned Body Surface Area Calculation:

   According to the Rule of Nines, Jane’s burns cover 36% of her total body surface area.

Case Study 2:

Tom fell into a frozen pond, leading to signs of hypothermia.

1. Definition of Hypothermia:

   Hypothermia occurs when the body loses heat faster than it can generate it, causing a dangerously low body temperature, typically below 95°F (35°C).

2. Skin Receptors Detecting Temperature Decrease:

   Thermoreceptors in the skin detect the decrease in temperature.

3. Control Center Monitoring Signals:

   The hypothalamus acts as the control center, monitoring signals from thermoreceptors.

4. Blood Vessel Response During Hypothermia:

   Blood vessels undergo vasoconstriction, reducing blood flow to the skin to preserve core body heat.

5. Hair Response:

   Tom’s body hair stands on end (piloerection) to create an insulating layer of warm air.

6. Feedback Mechanism:

   Negative feedback will restore Tom’s body temperature to its normal state, bringing the body back into equilibrium.

BIOS 251 Week 5 Integumentary system lab

BIOS 251 Week 4 Case Study: Tissue

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

BIOS 251 Week 4 Case Study: Tissue

The five layers of the skin, referred to as the epidermis, include the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and stratum basale. These layers have distinct characteristics and roles. The stratum corneum, being the most superficial, is the layer that people can visibly see. It consists of dead skin cells filled with keratin, a tough protein that makes the skin waterproof (Lawton, 2021). The stratum lucidum is the next layer, which also contains dead keratinocytes, making it more prevalent in thick skin areas like the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (Lawton, 2021). The stratum spinosum and granulosum layers, located beneath, contribute to skin strength and flexibility due to their spiny-shaped cells (Saladin, 2019). The stratum basale, the deepest layer, is close to the blood supply in the dermis and is responsible for producing keratinocytes. This layer undergoes continuous mitosis, pushing older cells upward to the stratum corneum, where they eventually die and form the skin’s outermost layer.

Cell junctions play a vital role in cellular communication and structure. There are four primary types: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions connect nearby cells, sealing off the intercellular gap and forcing substances to move through cells rather than between them. Adherens junctions connect cells by linking microfilaments, while desmosomes, which are patches that hold cells together, provide mechanical strength and prevent stress-induced damage (Saladin, 2019). Gap junctions consist of connexons that allow material and signals to pass between cells.

The plakophilin gene produces a protein known as plakophilin 2, which plays a significant role in the structural integrity of desmosomes, essential for cell-to-cell adhesion. According to Cerrone et al. (2017), plakophilin 2 helps maintain the structure and function of cellular junctions, particularly in cardiac cells. Mutations in the plakophilin gene can lead to disruptions in these cell junctions. Plakophilin 2 is involved in coupling intercellular signals and interacting with sodium channel complexes, which are crucial for maintaining the heart’s rhythm (Cerrone et al., 2017). When the plakophilin gene is mutated, desmosomes weaken, leading to issues such as sudden cardiac arrest. The mutation could also contribute to hyperhidrosis, a condition characterized by excessive sweating. Since desmosomes join epithelial cells, a mutation in the plakophilin gene may lead to defective cellular communication, increasing the likelihood of sweat passing through the skin (Mayo Clinic, 2020).

References

Cerrone, M., Montnach, J., Lin, X., Zhao, Y.-T., Zhang, M., Agullo-Pascual, E., Leo-Macias, A., Alvarado, F. J., Dolgalev, I., Karathanos, T. V., Malkani, K., Van Opbergen, C. J. M., van Bavel, J. J. A., Yang, H.-Q., Vasquez, C., Tester, D., Fowler, S., Liang, F., Rothenberg, E., … Delmar, M. (2017, July 24). Plakophilin-2 is required for transcription of genes that control calcium cycling and cardiac rhythm. Nature News. Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-00127-0

Gahl, W. (n.d.). Mitochondria. Genome.gov. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondria

Lawton, S. (2021, August 16). Skin 1: The structure and functions of the skin. Nursing Times. Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/dermatology/skin-1-the-structure-and-functions-of-the-skin-25-11-2019/

BIOS 251 Week 4 Case Study: Tissue

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2020, August 18). Hyperhidrosis. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hyperhidrosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20367152

Saladin, K. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

BIOS 251 Week 3 Case Study: Cells

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Brian mentions that a mutation is found in a gene located in the mitochondrial DNA. By highlighting this, Brian is pointing to a unique feature of mitochondrial DNA, distinct from the nuclear DNA, as it is inherited maternally and resides in the mitochondria, the energy-producing centers of cells. The specific mutation is linked to his brother’s condition, Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON), a disease causing vision loss. Since mitochondria generate most of the cell’s energy, a defect in the mitochondrial DNA could impair the energy supply required for proper cell functioning. In the context of the eye, this mutation could result in the cells’ inability to function normally, potentially leading to vision loss.

Mitochondria have a critical role within the cell. According to an article, “Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical reactions” (Gahl, n.d., para. 1). The energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which cells use for energy. Structurally, mitochondria have two membrane layers: an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The outer membrane encloses the organelle, while the inner membrane folds multiple times to form cristae, increasing surface area and giving mitochondria a wrinkled appearance.

BIOS 251 Week 3 Case Study: Cells

This structural difference between mitochondria and a typical eukaryotic cell membrane, which consists of two phospholipid sheets, reflects their distinct roles. The cell membrane, composed of phospholipids, primarily regulates the concentration of substances inside the cell. While the exact mechanism of cell death in the optic nerve caused by mitochondrial defects remains unclear, one hypothesis is that damaged mitochondria might be unable to supply sufficient energy, leading to cellular dysfunction and, consequently, vision loss. Another possibility could be that the condition is inherited.

BIOS 251 Week 2 Lab Instructions Chemistry Basics

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Lab Instructions: Chemistry Basics

Activity Deliverable Points

Step 1: Read the Entire Lab Packet

1.0 Thoroughly review the entire laboratory packet. (Refer to the attached sheets.)

Step 2: Come to the Lab with Proper PPE

BACKGROUND:

Acids and Bases

As discussed in your weekly modules, pH is a measure of proton (H⁺) concentration in a solution. The pH scale, ranging from 0 to 14 for most substances, measures acidity and basicity. Generally, acids have pH values below 7, while bases have values above 7, with a pH of 7 considered neutral, characteristic of pure water.

Buffers

This week, you learned that buffers resist changes in pH. A phosphate buffer was prepared for this lab, commonly used for contact lens storage to maintain a pH close to that of natural tears.

Solutions

In solutions, the solute is the lesser component, and the solvent is the predominant one. It’s important to remember that solutes and solvents do not separate over time.

PURPOSE:

In this lab, you will explore essential chemicals and their properties. You will learn various techniques to measure the pH of different solutions and understand the concepts of neutralization, the behavior of acids in water, and the preparation of solutions at varying concentrations.

MATERIALS:

Each lab group will observe demonstrations from the instructor. Be sure to print a copy of this lab document for each group member along with necessary writing utensils.

PREPARATION:

• Read the entire lab packet before attending class.
• Clear your workspace of unnecessary items. Store bags and other materials safely.
• Gather all required materials listed above.
• Familiarize yourself with the lab materials.
• Adhere to the instructions in the packet and those provided by your instructor.
• Record your own data and prepare your own lab report, even when working in a group.

ACTIVITY:

Review the observation report, complete the tables, and answer the questions fully to earn full credit. Utilize available resources such as textbooks and lecture notes for accurate responses.

OBSERVATION REPORT: W2 Lab Worksheet: Chemistry Basics

Measuring pH

Different areas of the body maintain specific optimal pH levels. For instance, blood typically has a pH range between 7.35 and 7.45. This experiment examines various common household chemicals to investigate their pH levels.

Part A: Measuring pH with pH Strips

Materials: DI water, lemon juice, 10% bleach, unknown solutions

Method:

1. Obtain pH strips.
2. Dip each pH strip into the solution, using a new strip for each sample.
3. Estimate pH and determine if each solution is acidic or basic by comparing against the provided pH guide.

Table 1:

Part B: Measuring pH with a pH Meter

Using a pH meter provides an accurate measure of H⁺ ion concentration. Dip the pH meter into each solution and record the pH values.

Table 2:

Questions:

1. Based on your pH measurements, determine which unknown solution corresponds to HCl or NaOH.
2. Note any trends observed regarding the acidic solutions.
3. Does the pH of the blood sample suggest it is from a healthy individual?

Part C: Impact of Strong Acids on Buffers

Description of Experiment:

This experiment assesses how strong acids affect pH in both water and a phosphate buffer solution by adding HCl dropwise.

Table 3: Data Collected from Experiment

Questions:

1. What effect does adding 1 M HCl have on the pH of the buffer solution?
2. Create a graph of pH versus drops of 1 M HCl.
3. Describe the rate of pH change observed in the graph.
4. Compare the changes in pH when adding 1 M HCl to both DI water and the buffer solution, noting similarities and differences.

Part D: Comparing Antacids

Have you ever taken an antacid for heartburn relief? Stomach acid is approximately 0.36 M HCl. In this section, we will compare various antacids against simulated stomach acid to determine their effectiveness.

Materials: 0.36 M HCl, beakers, pH strips, Tums, Alka-Seltzer

Experiment:

1. Pour 20 mL of stomach acid (0.36 M HCl) into two beakers (A and B).
2. Measure and record the initial pH of the acid in both beakers.
3. Crush and add Tums to beaker A, measuring pH after each tablet until reaching 7.
4. Repeat steps 2-3 for Alka-Seltzer in beaker B.
5. Record results in the following table.

Table 4:

Questions:

1. Are the active ingredients of the antacids classified as acids or bases?
2. How does the active ingredient change the pH of the stomach acid?
3. Calculate the total active ingredient required based on your results.

Part E: Solutions

This section reviews the preparation of solutions, focusing on a normal saline solution commonly used in healthcare.

Preparation of Normal Saline:

To prepare a 500 mL bag of normal saline, dissolve 4.5 g of NaCl in water, heating the solution for sterilization before transferring it to a sterile bag.

1. What percentage concentration (% mass/volume) should be labeled on the bag?
2. Given a molarity of 0.154 M NaCl, what osmolality would you expect for this solution?
3. If evaporation during sterilization alters the volume, how would that affect the solution’s concentration?

Reflection:

Reflect on four key concepts learned during this lab. Be specific and ensure your response is comprehensive, totaling 10-12 sentences.

LAB REPORT IS DUE PRIOR TO THE DATE ASSIGNED BY YOUR PROFESSOR.

Grading Rubric:

BIOS 251 Week 2 Lab Instructions Chemistry Basics

References:

• Saladin, K. S. (Year). Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. Publisher.

BIOS 251 Week 1 Case Study: Homeostasis

Name

Chamberlain University

BIOS-251 Anatomy & Physiology I

Prof. Name

Date

Case Study: Homeostasis

Difference Between Anatomy and Physiology

According to the book Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, there is a significant distinction between anatomy and physiology. Anatomy is defined as the study of various organisms to examine their similarities and differences, which also involves scrutinizing evolutionary trends. It can be further described as the study of body structures, focusing on the location, number, orientation, and composition of specific body parts (Saladin, 2019, p. 3). In contrast, physiology is the study of the functions of these structures. It provides meaning to anatomy by exploring how body parts interact, analyzing their functions, and integrating various fields of study (Saladin, 2019, p. 4).

Attributes of Life

An article by NASA’s Astrobiology division defines the characteristics of life by comparing all living organisms and their interconnections. Some of these characteristics include having a structured order, the ability to replicate either sexually or asexually, and the capacity for growth and development. Living organisms absorb and utilize energy to perform cellular functions that contribute to growth. Additionally, all living organisms must maintain homeostasis to ensure a stable internal environment. They respond to environmental stimuli by adapting to changes and evolve in response to external pressures (NASA Astrobiology).

Understanding Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant and stable internal environment, which is essential for the efficient functioning of body structures and the sustenance of life. It is crucial for all organ systems to adapt and keep internal variables, such as temperature, blood pressure, and body weight, stable (Saladin, 2019, p. 15). Homeostasis allows the body to self-regulate and return to a state of equilibrium, enabling recovery from illness without the need for medical intervention. The body detects changes, activates mechanisms to counteract them, and maintains stable internal conditions, functioning like a personal physician. Without homeostasis, the body would struggle to heal, leading to persistent illness and distress.

Negative Feedback Regulation

Negative feedback regulation is a fundamental process that helps maintain a variable close to its set point or average value. When the body senses a change in its environment, it initiates mechanisms to nullify or reverse that change. This regulation is vital for sustaining health (Saladin, 2019, p. 15). An example of negative feedback is the regulation of blood sugar levels. After eating, the body absorbs glucose, which increases its concentration in the blood and stimulates the pancreas to release insulin. Insulin prompts muscle and liver cells to uptake glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels and halts further insulin production. This feedback loop ensures that glucose levels remain within a specific range (Editors et al., 2017).

Positive Feedback Regulation

Positive feedback regulation is a self-amplifying cycle where physiological changes lead to greater deviations in the same direction, rather than generating corrective effects like negative feedback. This system can produce rapid changes as necessary (Saladin, 2019, p. 18). An example provided in the text involves a woman in labor. As the baby’s head pushes against the cervix, it stimulates nerve endings that send signals to the brain, prompting the pituitary gland to release oxytocin. This hormone travels through the bloodstream to the uterus, causing contractions that push the fetus downward, further stimulating the cervix and perpetuating the positive feedback loop until delivery occurs (Saladin, 2019, p. 18).

References

Editors, B. B. D., & Editors, B. D. (2017, July 30). Negative feedback – definition and examples. Biology Dictionary. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from https://biologydictionary.net/negative-feedback/

NASA. (n.d.). NASA astrobiology. NASA. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/education/alp/characteristics-of-life/

BIOS 251 Week 1 Case Study: Homeostasis

Saladin, K. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.